Professor Walter's History Lessons

Social Security and the Third Reich

In 1935, over significant opposition and accusations of socialism, congress passed the Social Security Act. Many members of congress considered the bill dead on arrival since there was no known system in the world capable of cataloging every person within the United States. At that time the only data processing equipment in the United States were rudimentary punch-card machines that could add and subtract. Congressional members who voted in favor of the bill passed it without funding, assuming that it would be far too expense and technically unfeasible. They expected the bill to die.

Then in walked IBM, with a ready made solution utilizing punch-card technology that had been specifically designed to catalog a whole country's population into a central repository. Their solution met nearly every need that the fledgling Social Security bill needed to succeed and IBM was eager to step in.

But where did IBM come up with the technology so readily? It's true that Thomas Watson, president of IBM at the time, always worked to ensure that IBM was always anticipating customer needs and requirements before the customer realized them. However, he was not looking at the US market when he directed IBM to work on large punch-card statistical systems. Instead he was guiding the development of technology for the 3rd Reich -- to catalog their population in order to "cleanse" the non-Aryans. IBM's German, branch known as Dehomag, provided the equipment and training to the Nazi government, enabling them to catalog all people within Germany. And allowed the government to catalog religious heritage based on church records going back generations. This allowed the effective cataloging of a person's "blood heritage" even if they were not aware of it themselves, even if their ancestors had left the faith long before the individual's birth.

It was Nazi Germany's efforts to eradicate its Jewish presence which provided the technology to make the United States Social Security program a success.

-Professor Walter

For more information about IBM and the involvement their punch-card technology played in Germany during WWII, read "IBM and the Holocaust" by Edwin Black. It is a thoroughly researched account of the actions leading up to and through the reign of the Third Reich, and the involvement of IBM (and their subsidiaries).

The finest alternative cancer treatment from Yugoslavia

Promoted by Yugoslavian physician Stevan Durovic, Krebiozen was touted as a miracle cancer cure. It's chief U.S. advocate was Dr. Andrew Ivy, who referenced studies showing amazing recoveries in patients who injected the drug. Announcing the drug at a press conference in 1951, Ivy claimed that of the 22 treated patients, 14 were still alive and that those who had died had died of unrelated causes. Independent researchers, however, were unable to confirm any of the claims and published their concerns in the Journal of the American Medical Association. Ivy claimed that there was a conspiracy against the drug and dismissed the report.  Afterward, the Krebiozen Research Foundation was founded by Durovic, with Ivy as president.

In 1959 Ivy began to sell his version under the name Carcalon and by 1963 some 5,000 patients were being treated with the drug. Many were convinced that they would have died without the medication, leading some politicians to begin promoting it. At the time the U.S. Government did not monitor the effectiveness of drugs and, despite mounting evidence that Carcalon was, at best, ineffectual in fighting cancer, they were powerless to take action. Until, that is, the 1961 Thalidamide scare prompted the passage of the U.S. Kefauver Harris Amendment, or "Drug Efficacy Amendment," an amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. This new law required drug makers to provide proof of effectiveness and safety of drugs and regulated advertising.

The newly empowered FDA set their sites on Carcalon. Despite congressional hearings and cries from the public of the government overstepping their authority, an investigation began. Initial attempts by the National Cancer Institute to procure samples were met with resistance from Durovic, who proposed selling Krebiozen to them for $170,000 per gram. Eventually samples were released for free. Analysis determined that Krebiozen contained mineral oil and creatine monohydrate.  Examinations of samples collected prior to that point found that in some the creatine monohydrate was not even present.

As the evidence that the drug was ineffective mounted, public sentiment began to change. Criminal charges were brought against Ivy and others. After eight days of deliberation the defendants were acquitted, though the decision was a legal one and not based on medical facts.

-Professor Walter

Admiral, we have found the nuclear wessel. And Admiral, ... it is the Enterprise!

Built by Professor Thaddeus S. C. Lowe and his father, Clovis Lowe, in 1858, The Enterprise was an experimental aerostat. Using a breakthrough secret-recipe varnish, the india silk ship was able to stay aloft for up to two weeks.

On a later test flight it traveled 900 miles, into confederate South Carolina where Thaddeus Lowe was picked up as a confederate spy. After a few days, a local college professor was able to vouch for Lowe as a scientist and he was allowed to return to Union territory to be reunited with his ship.

Upon his return, Lowe was called to Washington, D.C. by Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase. On June 11, Lowe met with Lincoln and offered to demonstrate the balloon. He took the Enterprise 500 feet above Washington, D.C. and telegraphed a message back to Lincoln on the ground.

Balloon Enterprise in the Air

To His Excellency, Abraham Lincoln

President of the United States

Dear Sir:

From this point of observation we command an extent of our country nearly fifty miles in diameter. I have the pleasure of sending you this first telegram ever dispatched from an aerial station, and acknowledging indebtedness to your encouragement for the opportunity of demonstrating the availability of the science of aeronautics in the service of the country.

I am, Your Excellency's obedient servant,

T.S.C. Lowe

Lincoln was impressed, ordering seven to be built for the Union, which were quickly put into service. The Enterprise, however, crashed after the first free-flight demonstration. Once repaired, it was put into light service around Washington D.C. and eventually decommissioned.

-Professor Walter

The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act

The post Civil War westward expansion saw the United States grow faster than every before. New and improved technologies such as the telegraph and railway linked the far flung states such as California with the original colonies. This rapid growth brought with it a large surge of immigration, mainly from China, to provide a work force to build the railways and mine raw material from the earth. Early on corporations would bring people from their native countries to the United States for this purpose.

However as the rails were finished and the immigration continued many US citizens found themselves to be out of work and saw the Chinese immigrants as a treat to their livelihood. Many claimed that the immigrants would work for less than any man could reasonably live on and as such jobs were scarce. In direct response to the public outcry against the influx of cheap Chinese labor the Chinese Exclusion Act was signed into law by President Chester A. Arthur on Mary 8, 1882. 

The law banned immigration from China for "skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining" as well as denying citizenship for Chinese immigrants in the United States thus creating a permanent alien status. If a Chinese alien left the country they would be denied reentry. This was changed two years later with an amendment that relaxed that rule. The result of the immigration ban was human trafficking as more sought to come to the US. Initially the law was only supposed to last ten years, but it remained in force until is was repealed in 1943 by the Magnuson Act. While the new act allowed Chinese to become citizens; it limited the number allowed to emigrate to 105 per year. It wasn't until the Immigration Act of 1965 that immigration restrictions were normalized and a entry to the United States was granted on a fair basis regardless of country of origin.

-Professor Walter

When the Yankees reclaimed Dixie

The unofficial anthem of the Confederate States of America originated in black-face shows of the 1850s. The song's creation has been credited to Daniel Decatur Emmet (although that "fact" has been questioned on numerous occasions). Emmet, a black-face performer, upon learning of its use in the south remarked, "If I had known to what use they [Southerners] were going to put my song, I will be damned if I'd have written it."

The song itself was a smash hit in the south. It's tune and lyrics have been called out as glorifying the old south and slavery. There are some elements who wish to have it banned as racist, while others wish to preserve it as a legitimate piece of southern culture.

Abraham Lincoln was a fan of the song and refused to give it the power it would claim as an official song of the Confederacy stating, "I have always thought that 'Dixie' was one of the best tunes I ever heard. I had heard our adversaries had attempted to appropriate it. I insisted yesterday that we had fairly captured it."

On Saturday, April 8, 1865, Lincoln completed a fifteen day stay in captured Richmond and left on the River Queen for Washington D.C. The Military band played a few numbers and then Lincoln requested Dixie stating, "That tune is now federal property". The musicians were surprised to learn that Lincoln meant for the song to be a good-will song of the reunited states.

Oh, I wish I was in the land of cotton,
Old times there are not forgotten,

Look away, look away, look away Dixie Land.

In Dixie Land, where I was born in,
early on one frosty mornin', 
Look away, look away, look away Dixie Land. 

I wish I was in Dixie, Hooray! Hooray! 
In Dixie Land I'll take my stand
to live and die in Dixie. 
Away, away, away down south in Dixie. 
Away, away, away down south in Dixie 

Ole Missus marry "Will the weaver"
Willum was a gay deceiver
Look away! Look away! Look away!
Dixie Land

But when he put his arm around 'er,
He smiled fierce as a forty pounder,
Look away! Look away! Look away!
Dixie Land

His face was sharp as a butcher's cleaver
But that did not seem to grieve 'er
Look away! Look away! Look away!
Dixie Land

Ole Missus acted the foolish part
And died for a man that broke her heart
Look away! Look away! Look away!
Dixie Land

Now here's a health to the next ole Missus
An' all the gals that want to kiss us;
Look away! Look away! Look away!
Dixie Land

But if you want to drive 'way sorrow
Come and hear this song tomorrow
Look away! Look away! Look away!
Dixie Land

There's buckwheat cakes and Injun batter,
Makes you fat or a little fatter
Look away! Look away! Look away!
Dixie Land

Then hoe it down and scratch your gravel,
To Dixie's Land I'm bound to travel,
Look away! Look away! Look away!
Dixie Land

-Professor Walter

How do we know which way to go? That's right -- The Map! Say Map! Rockville, Brookeville, Pennsylvania!

On June 28, 1863, Major General J.E.B. Stuart's Cavalry Corp (from the Army of Northern Virginia) was on their way to rendezvous with General Robert E. Lee in Pennsylvania. While passing through Montgomery County, Maryland, Stuart decided that, while he was there, he might as well invade the town of Rockville. Until then Rockville had seen no battles and was divided between those who supported the Confederacy and those loyal to the Union. When Stuart's troops arrived they were greeted by enthusiastic southern leaning citizens, while pro-Union citizens sought hiding. Stuart's troops captured about 150 Union wagons and destroyed telegraph lines. After raiding stores for any available supplies, they captured four prominent pro-Union citizens: town commissioner John H. Higgins, Judge Richard Bowie, Postmaster Joseph Bailey and Provost Marshall Mortimer Moulden.

After getting as much use as possible from their impromptu invasion, Stuart's troops eventually left, via Old Baltimore Road, headed toward their original destination. On the way, they made a stop over in Brookeville, MD to release their captive pro-Union citizens. The newly freed captives made their way back to Rockville on foot. Mrs. Sophia Dorothy (Dora) Barnard Higgins, John H. Higgins' wife, wrote to her mother providing a rare glimpse into the events of the day:

My Dear Mother,

I suppose news of our tribulation reached you today. First place Saturday morning I got up to find Maria, my cook, gone, and heard during the day that Basil and Charity at William Trent's also gone. Mr. Muncaster's servant cleared out. Well, I had been expecting for the last two years to find it so, but still it was a blow. I was very busy all day Saturday, and hardly got to bed, before I heard horsemen going by and the clanking of sabres and spurs. "Federal pickets," thought I, and laid me down and slept in peace. After breakfast, I was getting the children ready for Sabbath School. I saw a Federal guard with six hundred condemned horses going by to Washington. I told John to come by after school and stay with his sister, Dora, and little Frank whilst I went to church. As John came in at the front gate, I heard a terrific yell, and there appeared what I thought were six coloured men on horseback rushing up to our gate and drawing up in a line. Dora screamed, "Rebels, Ma!" I thought it impossible. The next moment I saw a whole column with the Rebel Flag charging furiously down past William Brewer's, and the next a discharge of musketry and cannon in the rear, and there was a demand to know where the man who lives here was. I could with truth say he was not in. "Where was he?" and tell I did not. Eblen* came running in to get us into the cellar, when the men surrounded him, saying "You are the one we are looking for" and took him, calling him a "cursed Yankee." I followed on to beg for him, but no use. I have not seen or heard from him since.

I broke through the charging columns with the pistol balls flying, rushed through the backway to the Church just in time to warn Mr, Higgins, Mr. Bowie, Mr. Dawson and Williams to stay in the Vestry room, for they, the Secessionists, were vowing vengeance on them.

I came back bringing the children through the melee. I flew to get Mr. DeSellum (the Presbyterian minister) to put himself out of the way and give John Vinson time to prepare himself. They did at Mr. Prout's, but I was too late to save Mr. Moulden and Mr. Bailey.

I remember nothing but the thick rank and clanking of sabres, yells and furious charges. They were pouring in at every lane and road from the Falls.

On my return I was beset with applications for Mr. Higgins. "Where was he?—In the Village—Could not they get in the store?" "If I did not open that store, they would break it open." "Pull it down." "Had I the key?" "Well, now you have to be accommodating." I just told them if Gen. Wad Hampton or Gen. Jeb Stuart would send one of their aides with a guard and said I must open it, I would. "Now that is ladylike. We will pay you in Confederate script." I replied, "I will take no pay for what you take. Remember, if you go into that store, I go too, but I do not wish you to have anything out of it."

It ended in my finding a Rebel Captain Cissell of Maryland, who showed me Gen. Stuart. I sent Dr. Hodges to ask him if I was compelled to open the store. He sent an order back for me to stay in front of the store "and let one of them dare to resist you." I stayed there six hours, repelling their persistent endeavors and having a full view of their movements.

There had been no firing after the first assault. A brigade of Federals came up as far as the Poor House and though too feeble to oppose the whole force, yet skirmished on the outskirts of the village. There were three brigades of rebels in all, about 8,000. One brigade went charging down the turnpike, capturing an incoming Federal wagon train of 170 wagons. They skirmished down as far as the stone tavern (five miles from Washington), sweeping through the whole country of horses and servants. John, with bitter tears, declared his intention of taking Charlie's horse upstairs, but I took him and hid him in the bushes in the garden and saved him.

George Peters, Messrs. Miller, White and Brown (all secessionists) pleaded hard for the rescue of Eblen and that Union men should not be molested. Had it not been for their endeavors, every Union man would have been take and every store laid open, for Gen. Lee had ordered such to be done, but Gen. Stuart countermanded the order at the earnest protestations of the Secessionists, for they said to carry out such an order would be to their (Secessionists) entire ruin. At six the Rebels deployed out in the open fields below the village and came up a solid column, one-half under Gen. Lee, turning out towards Brookeville, and one half under Gen. Stuart, towards Frederick. They had a battery of six pieces. No infantry. They carried their prisoners off, compelling Capt. Vinson, tho' too ill to stand alone, to mount a horse, at the point of their sabres, and go with them.

Relieved I thought they had all gone and I went to the Church to tell my prisoners to wait another hour and they would be safe. When Mr. Bowie said, "Here comes a squad," there was an ominous "Halt" outside and the door opened. The gentlemen never stirred, I never changed my position. Emma Holland gave a great sob. There was a dead silence, but in the growing dark I could see that Mr. Higgins and Mr. Bowie were deadly pale. Then, "Is Mr. Dawson here?" "Yes, sir." Rising, he walked out, Emma Holland with them. The guard looked first at me. It was Captain Cissel. He hesitated then looked at Higgins. "Lieut. Wilkes, come here. I have forgotten the name." "Mr. Higgins," replied the lieutenant. I went and threw my arms around Mr. Higgins. "Goodbye." "No leave-taking if you please," said the Lieut."There can be no objection to his leaving directions."

In solemn procession, we moved up the street as far as the square, when the Captain, said, "Ladies, you can go no farther." The Secessionists gathered around Mrs. Bowie and myself declaring they had nothing to do with it. Mrs. Bowie was rather short. I said, "I know positively that not one of you could have any influence today, as Gen. Stuart had a written list of all the Union men's names. But someone here furnished that list." They left me alone after that.

I broke down once only through the day and that was when the children knew their father was a prisoner. I went down and gathered all Mr. Higgins papers and money out of the safe. I buried the money. I sent for John and Eliza Martin (colored) to stay with me as I was alone with my children.

About one o'clock I heard the back gate slam and someone called, "Dora." It was Mr. Higgins! The Rebels took him out towards Laytonsville. They met the other columns filing in from Brookeville. Somehow, they seemed uneasy about Judge Bowie and, stopping to rest, concluded they had better let him go, and besides the Federal troops were passing through Rockville and as they has no horses for the three could not hope to retain them and move them rapidly.

I heard many say they were going to give Pennsylvania a taste of the war. Notwithstanding all, they behaved better than I expected, never entered the house. They had feasted on Uncle Abe's army rations. Had captures enough coffee, a rarity. "They did not fight for 13 dollars a month." "They were going to run all the Yankees off the face of the earth." "But we are gentlemen. We don't distress women and children and destroy dwellings."

Tuesday, the 30th

Eblen got home two o'clock this morning, so faint and exhausted that I had to help him to bed. The Rebels carried him to the confines of Carroll County. Mr. Bailey, the postmaster, and Mr. Moulden, the Provost, were offered their liberty unconditionally at Brookeville, but Mr. Bailey refused to leave Eblen, for he feared if he wearied, they would shoot him on the road, as they did several prisoners on the march. They concluded not to leave Eblen. Bailey carried him several miles on his back. Moulden helped. They both passed their arms under his shoulders and kept him from fainting. They had not one mouthful to eat from Sunday morning till they were released at 11 o'clock Monday night at Claggetsville, where they were ordered back five nights this way and released. The reason was soon apparent, for just then they came to the advanced guard of the 2nd Regular Cavalry, who were in hot pursuit. They were not permitted to stop for water, except as they crossed the streams, they dipped up a hatful. They had 300 colored men prisoners, whom they had gathered from the various farms. They had slashed at them if they attempted to drink at the streams. Eblen saw one shot because he was too weak to keep up with the others. The sergeant who had them in charge tried to beg food from the Rebels for his prisoners, but could get none. In all they marched nearly 70 miles.

What hurts me more than all is that Mr. Peter said he would go to Lee and see if he could get Eblen off. Told Lee that nothing but his being a weakly man (boy) had spared him from being clubbed to death by the Secessionists. Mr. Peter prevented me from going to Lee and Mrs. B revealed the fact that as the last Rebels were leaving the village, Judge Bowie heard them say, "Stuart's Cavalry are the elite of the Southern army."

I could, by what I know, justly get the punishment of many prominent Secessionists, but I shall never hurt a hair of their Heads. But I shall certainly tell George Peter of his Treachery.

I expect to send this across the country to Colesville, as we have no mail this week.

With love to all, I am

Your affectionate daughter,

Dora B. Higgins

 -Professor Walter

*Eblen was a Union soldier Mrs. Higgins had rescued from the battlefield and nursed back to health.

Russia's Ghost Railway

Often referred to as the "Railroad of Death," "Road of Death," or "Death Road," the Salekhard-Igarka Railway is an abandoned 806 mile (1,297 km) project in the Russian Tundra. The construction of the railway began in the summer of 1949 with the 501st Labor Camp working eastward from Salekhard and the 503rd Labor Camp working westward from Igarka. The plans called for a single railway with 29 stations.

An estimated 80,000 to 120,000 laborers were put to work on the project and tens of thousands died. These deaths were even more unfortunate because they were entirely unnecessary: the demand for rail transport was already met by existing routes. The unofficial purpose behind the project was an attempt to keep political prisoners busy. One way in which this was made evident was the fact that the requirements called for everything to be built by hand. There were little to no machines brought in to assist with the work. Additionally, the food rations were meager and the shelters inadequate. Further contributing to the deplorable conditions was the rule that if a prisoner could not meet the impossibly high work-quotas, their food rations were cut, weakening them more, thus making it so that they had no chance of meeting the quotas, thus resulting in further ration cuts. And so the cycle continued until death.

The futility of the effort was even more apparent in winter, when the -60 C temperatures and blizzards wiped out laborers, and the frost heaves destroyed the rails. The summers brought millions of mosquitoes, gnats, and parasites as the tracks were pushed through swampland.  Construction finally ended in 1953 upon Stalin's death. A total of 434 miles (699 km) were completed, but the bulk collapsed shortly thereafter from frost heaves and poor construction.

Remnants of the Ghost Railway can be seen today in places where the work was literally left in progress at the time the project ended. Ghost Trains, quietly rust on warped tracks, where they will never reach their intended destination, filled with the phantoms of those who lost their lives to cruelty and folly.

-Professor Walter

The American Bison

One of the greatest "back from the brink" stories is that of the American Bison.  Conventionally known as buffalo, the bison is an incredibly robust creature with the ability to survive in a wide variety of regions. While many think of the "wild west" when they think of the bison, the animals once thrived throughout the bulk of the United States.  

In the 1500s bison roamed across the United States, from New York down to Florida and across to Texas and into Mexico. They spanned as far west as California and as far north as the Yukon. At that time their numbers were close to fifty million. Native Americans helped to shape the land to encorage the growth of the Buffalo herds as they were used for food, clothing and a variety of other goods. European settlers changed the balance and pushed the herds west as they converted grazing land to farm and displaced bison with their own livestock.

By 1870 the bison had been pushed back to two areas seperated by the intercontinental railroad and their numbers had dropped to 20 million. Unfortunately, two key factors would drive their numbers even lower. First was the fact that bison often damaged railroad tracks. The railroad companies paid rewards for the killing of buffallo to reduce damage. At the same time, William Frederick Cody became known as "Buffalo Bill" for his success in killing 4280 bison. Mostly, though, the massacre of the bison was a result of their value to the Native Americans. A large scale effort to either eliminate or "civilize" the natives led many to the conclusion that the elimination of one would facilitate the elimination of the other. So the slaughter continued, and in 1889 the bison's numbers had been reduced to fewer than 1000.

Today, thanks to recovery efforts, there are around 200,000 bison. They are raised for the same purposes as cattle. Their hearty nature and leaner meat makes them a better choice than traditional cattle in many ways, with herds as far flung as Haiwaii. There is still one wild herd and many others in captivity. Most of the bison today are the offspring of 77 buffalo in five different herds. The Bronx Zoo was instrumental in the recovery because many of their exhibits came from a variety of herds. Luckily the animals were already on the road to rapid recovery by 1900 which allowed them to escape the risk of problems arising from inbreeding.

Today many fine restaraunts carry buffallo steaks. Eating one is a bittersweet experience, knowing that they were nearly wiped off the face of the earth, yet understanding that with every steak sold thier survival is ensured.

-Professor Walter

A return to Constitutionalism

John Kasper was a Columbia University educated man who worked to organize protesters against the integration of Clinton High School in Clinton, Tennessee. During that time he was arrested but later acquitted, becomming the focal point of many protests. In 1957 he served eight months in jail for conspiracy. Once released, he called for a return to constitutionalism and created a third party, opposed to integration.

His new party promised to deport African-Americans back to Africa and strip Jews of their citizenship. Kasper allegedly promised to create a new flag and monetary system once he seized power. He was unsuccessful in his campaign, and attracted just 6,434 votes -- in Kentucky and Arkansas.  Lyndon B. Johnson won the election with 43,127,041 votes, and Kasper faded into obscurity, his dreams of a return to Constitutionalsm and ethnic cleansing were dashed.

-Professor Walter

A common myth about the Declaration of Independence

In 1776 one of the greatest documents in history was created. The Declaration of Independence announced the intent of the British colonies in North America to separate from Great Britain. This document has also been put forth as an example of hemp use in the Americas at the birth of our nation. However this assertion is not correct.

The original Declaration of Independence is actually engrossed on parchment, which is animal skin, treated with lime, and stretched. The rough draft of the document, which is in the Jefferson Papers collection at the Library of Congress, has been analyzed as well.  Its origin is most likely Dutch.  At the time, the Dutch used flax or linen rags to make paper.

While it is true that hemp was commonly used in the colonies, it was not used for this document, or the Constituion which is also on parchment.

-Professor Walter